Neurodegenerative Disease: Parkinson’s –A Comprehensive Review
Raghvi Tandon
Amity Institute of Biotechnology, Amity University Uttar Pradesh, Lucknow Campus, Lucknow, India.
Rachana Singh *
Amity Institute of Biotechnology, Amity University Uttar Pradesh, Lucknow Campus, Lucknow, India.
*Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Abstract
The most prevalent neurodegenerative condition is Parkinson’s Disease. There are three primary processes for the loss of neurons that may operate alone or in concert to result in neurodegeneration. This lethal trifecta of excitotoxicity, metabolic compromise, and oxidative stress results in necrotic and apoptotic neuronal cell death. It is thought that elements of each of these three pathways contribute to the neurodegeneration as seen in Parkinson's illnesses. Promoting neuronal development and function or preventing neurotoxic processes are typical tactics used to rescue or protect damaged neurons. Many other neuroprotective drugs have been tested in depth using animal models that mimic this illness. The care of Parkinson's disease (PD) is projected to become a more significant and difficult component of medical practice for neurologists and general practitioners as the population ages.
With the discovery of many gene mutations over the past ten years, which may provide insight into the mechanisms underlying the pathogenesis of sporadic cases of PD, our understanding of the disease's pathophysiology has evolved. The diagnosis of Parkinson's disease (PD) is still primarily clinical, thus it's critical to recognize the early symptoms as well as those that point to additional causes of parkinsonism.
Along with a deeper understanding of non-motor problems, therapies have rapidly expanded for both the early and late stages of the illness. The National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (NICE) in the UK has produced guidelines for the diagnosis and management of patients with PD.
Keywords: Neurodegenerative disease, Parkinson’s; dopamine, hypokinesia, neurotransmitter
How to Cite
References
Armstrong RA. Visual signs and symptoms of Parkinson’s disease. Clinical and Experimental Optometry. 2008;91(2):129-38.
Armstrong MJ, Okun MS. Diagnosis and treatment of Parkinson's disease: a review. JAMA. 2020;323(6):548-60.
Schapira AH, Emre M, Jenner P, Poewe WJ. Levodopa in the treatment of Parkinson’s disease. European Journal of Neurology. 2009;16(9):982-9.
Calne DB. Treatment of Parkinson’s disease. New England Journal of Medicine. 1993;329(14):1021-7.
Rao SS, Hofmann LA, Shakil A. Parkinson’s disease: diagnosis and treatment. American Family Physician. 2006;74(12):2046-54.
Lees A. Alternatives to levodopa in the initial treatment of early Parkinson’s disease. Drugs & Ageing. 2005;22:731-40.
Beal MF. Experimental models of Parkinson’s disease. Nature Reviews Neuroscience. 2001;2(5):325-32.
Jankovic J, Tan EK. Parkinson’s disease: Etiopathogenesis and treatment. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry. 2020;91(8):795-808.
Lee TK, Yankee EL. A review on Parkinson’s disease treatment. Neuroimmunology and Neuroinflammation. 2021;8:222.
Connolly BS, Lang AE. Pharmacological treatment of Parkinson's disease: a review. JAMA. 2014;311(16):1670- 8
Beal MF. Experimental models of Parkinson’s disease. Nature Reviews Neuroscience. 2001;2(5):325-32.
Jankovic J, Tan EK. Parkinson’s disease: Etiopathogenesis and treatment. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry. 2020;91(8):795-808.
Lee TK, Yankee EL. A review on Parkinson’s disease treatment. Neuroimmunology and Neuroinflammation. 2021;8:222.
Connolly BS, Lang AE. Pharmacological treatment of Parkinson's disease: a review. JAMA. 2014;311(16):1670- 83.
Armstrong MJ, Okun MS. Diagnosis and treatment of Parkinson's disease: a review. JAMA. 2020;323(6):548-60.
Rao SS, Hofmann LA, Shakil A. Parkinson’s disease: diagnosis and treatment. American Family Physician. 2006;74(12):2046-54.
Savitt JM, Dawson VL, Dawson TM. Diagnosis and treatment of Parkinson's disease: molecules to medicine. The Journal of Clinical Investigation. 2006;116(7):1744-54.
Sveinbjornsdottir S. The clinical symptoms of Parkinson’s disease. Journal of Neurochemistry. 2016;139:318-24.
Chaudhuri KR, Odin P. The challenge of non-motor symptoms in Parkinson’s disease. Progress in Brain Research. 2010;184:325-41.
Lang AE, Lozano AM. Parkinson's disease. New England Journal of Medicine. 1998;339(16):1130-43.
Tolosa E, Garrido A, Scholz SW, Poewe W. Challenges in the diagnosis of Parkinson's disease. The Lancet Neurology. 2021;20(5):385-97.
Brooks DJ. The early diagnosis of Parkinson's disease. Annals of Neurology. 1998;44(S11):S10-8.
Heim B, Krismer F, De Marzi R, Seppi K. Magnetic resonance imaging for the diagnosis of Parkinson’s disease. Journal of Neural Transmission. 2017;124:915-64.
Hughes AJ, Ben-Shlomo Y, Daniel SE, Lees AJ. What features improve the accuracy of clinical diagnosis in Parkinson's disease: a clinicopathologic study. Neurology. 1992;42(6):1142.
Tolosa E, Wenning G, Poewe W. The diagnosis of Parkinson's disease. The Lancet Neurology. 2006;5(1):75-86.
Mann DM, Yates PO. Pathological basis for neurotransmitter changes in Parkinson's disease. Neuropathology and applied neurobiology. 1983;9(1):3-19.
Braak H, Braak E. Pathoanatomy of Parkinson’s disease. Journal of Neurology. 2000;247:II3-10.
Hirsch EC, Jenner P, Przedborski S. Pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease. Movement Disorders. 2013;28(1):24-30.
Schapira AH, Jenner P. Etiology and pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease. Movement Disorders. 2011;26(6):1049-55.
Gandhi S, Wood NW. Molecular pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease. Human Molecular Genetics. 2005; 14(18):2749-55.
Jenner P, Olanow CW. Oxidative stress and the pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease. Neurology. 1996;47(6 Suppl 3): 161S-70S.
Segura‐Aguilar J, Paris I, Muñoz P, Ferrari E, Zecca L, Zucca FA. Protective and toxic roles of dopamine in Parkinson's disease. Journal of Neurochemistry. 2014; 129(6):898-915.
Trounson A, Thakar RG, Lomax G, Gibbons D. Clinical trials for stem cell therapies. BMC Medicine. 2011;9(1):1-7.
Barker RA. Developing stem cell therapies for Parkinson’s disease: waiting until the time is right. Cell Stem Cell. 2014;15(5):539-42.
Parmar M, Grealish S, Henchcliffe C. The future of stem cell therapies for Parkinson disease. Nature Reviews Neuroscience. 2020;21(2):103-15.
Kim TW, Koo SY, Studer L. Pluripotent stem cell therapies for Parkinson disease: present challenges and future opportunities. Frontiers in Cell and Developmental Biology. 2020;8:729.
Lindvall O, Björklund A. Cell therapy in Parkinson’s disease. Neuro Rx. 2004;1:382-93.
W Chen L, Kuang F, C Wei L, X Ding Y, KL Yung K, S Chan Y. Potential application of induced pluripotent stem cells in cell replacement therapy for Parkinson's disease. CNS & Neurological Disorders-Drug Targets (Formerly Current Drug Targets-CNS & Neurological Disorders). 2011;10(4):449-58.
Lindvall O, Kokaia Z. Prospects of stem cell therapy for replacing dopamine neurons in Parkinson's disease. Trends in Pharmacological Sciences. 2009;30(5): 260-7.